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Syria
Once the centre of the Islamic Empire, Syria covers an area that has seen invasions and occupations over the ages, from Romans and Mongols to Crusaders and Turks.
A country of fertile plains, mountains and deserts, it is home to diverse ethnic and religious groups, including Kurds, Armenians, Assyrians, Christians, Druze, Alawite Shias and Arab Sunnis, the last of who make up a majority of the Muslim population.
Modern Syria gained its independence from France in 1946 but has lived through periods of political instability driven by the conflicting interests of these various groups.
Overview
From 1958-61 it united with Nasser's Egypt, but an army coup restored independence before the Alawite-controlled pan-Arab Baath (Renaissance) party took control in 1963.
Baath government has seen authoritarian rule at home and a strong anti-Israeli policy abroad, particularly under former President Hafez al-Assad. In 1967 Syria lost the Golan Heights to the Israelis, while civil war in neighbouring Lebanon allowed it to extend its political and military influence in the region.
Syria pulled its forces out of Lebanon in 2005, having come under intense international pressure to do so after the assassination of Lebanese former premier Rafik Hariri. A UN report implicated Syrian and pro-Syria Lebanese officials in the killing. Damascus denied any involvement.
The government has dealt harshly with domestic opposition. Tens of thousands are reported to have been killed in the crackdown on the 1982 uprising of the Muslim Brotherhood in Hama.
Following the death of Hafez al-Assad, Syria underwent a degree of relaxation. Hundreds of political prisoners were released. But the granting of real political freedoms and a shake-up of the state-dominated economy have not materialised.
On the world stage Damascus has been increasingly isolated in recent years, having come under fire for its alleged support for insurgents in Iraq, and over its role in Lebanon.
That isolation showed signs of easing after efforts by France to bring Syria back into the international fold in 2008, but allegations of Syria's violation of a UN ban on arming the Lebanese Hezbollah militia led to the extension of US sanctions in May 2010.
Syria is one of Israel's harshest opponents, and supports a number of armed groups that carry out attacks against Israel. Hopes for reconciliation have foundered on Israel's occupation of the Golan Heights since the 1967 war.
Peace talks between the two countries stalled in January 2000, and indirect talks under Turkish auspices in 2008 came to an end amid tensions over Hezbollah and Syrian support for the Hamas Islamic government in Gaza.
Facts
· Full name: The Syrian Arab Republic
· Population: 22.5 million (UN, 2010)
· Capital: Damascus
· Area: 185,180 sq km (71,498 sq miles)
· Major language: Arabic
· Major religions: Islam, Christianity
· Life expectancy: 73 years (men), 77 years (women) (UN)
· Monetary unit: 1 Syrian pound = 100 piastres
· Main exports: Oil, gas
· GNI per capita: US $2,410 (World Bank, 2009)
· Internet domain: .sy
· International dialling code: +963
Leaders
President: Bashar al-Assad
Bashar al-Assad would probably have been working as an optician had his brother not died in a car accident in 1994.
The death of Basil - groomed to succeed his father, President Hafez al-Assad - catapulted the younger brother into politics, and into the presidency after his father died in June 2000.
During his six-year political apprenticeship, Bashar al-Assad completed his military training, met Arab and other leaders and got to know the movers and shakers in Syrian politics.
On taking office he ushered in a brief period of openness and cautious reform. Political prisoners were released and restrictions on the media were eased. Political debate was tolerated and open calls for freedom of expression and political pluralism were made.
But the pace of change alarmed the establishment - the army, the Baath party and the Alawite minority. Fearing instability and perceiving a threat to their influence, they acted not only to slow it down, but to revert to the old ways.
A referendum in 2007 endorsed him as president for a second seven-year term. He was the only candidate.
Bashar al-Assad was born in 1965, the third of President Hafez al-Assad's children. He studied in Damascus and London. Shy and private, he was brought up outside the political spotlight, seemingly destined for a quiet life.